November 13, 1998
Introduction
Almost everyone is familiar with the term martial
art. However, very few people have any knowledge of the
characteristics unique to each art. To most individuals, kung fu,
karate, and tae kwon do, are all the same; they teach people how to
fight. Movies and television often portray martial arts as
mysterious practices that endow their practitioners with superhuman
powers, the ability to withstand extreme pain, and the skill to
fight ten enemies at once. This research paper seeks to demonstrate
the inaccuracy of such portrayals by presenting accurate information
on a specific martial art, Shotokan Karate.
I present researched information using a style
that benefits the general reader and the reader who is a student of
Shotokan Karate. The general reader will gain an accurate
understanding of Shotokan Karate. For the Shotokan student, the
information presented will strengthen understanding of the art and
will illustrate common principles required in training.
The content of this paper incorporates information
from numerous researched sources. Sources include published works,
online articles, personal interviews, and personal experience in
Shotokan Karate. The primary sources of information are books
written by Gichin Funakoshi, Masatoshi Nakayama, and Teruyuki
Okazaki. Extensive meaning in this paper comes from the knowledge
found in their writings. Martial artists throughout the world
recognize these men as three of the foremost instructors and
practitioners of Shotokan Karate. Despite the abundant information
collected, I regret not being able to conduct an interview with
Teruyuki Okazaki, the chief instructor of the International Shotokan
Karate Federation. His constant travel throughout the United States
sets unusual limitations on availability. Before continuing, it is
necessary to make one remark regarding presented information.
Undocumented text in this paper reflects personal knowledge gained
through training in Shotokan. I believe my knowledge is accurate.
Additionally, any individual who earnestly trains in Shotokan Karate
will eventually discover the same knowledge. The information
presented focuses on the following seven major topics: the origin of
Shotokan Karate, training, who is capable of training, benefits of
training, generation of power, the scientific basis for techniques,
and the process of finding a legitimate instructor.
The Origin of Shotokan Karate
Migration to China: The Creation of Shorinji Kempo
Karate is an empty-handed art of self-defense in
which the arms and legs are systematically trained as weapons
(Nakayama, 1978a, p. 11). The origin of karate dates back more than
a thousand years. In the sixth century, the Indian Buddhist monk
Bodhidharma traveled from India to the Shaolin Temple in South
Central China (Okazaki & Stricevic, 1997, p. 11). At the Shaolin
Temple, Bodhidharma taught his students physical training methods in
order to build endurance and physical strength required to carry out
the rigid discipline of their religion (Nakayama, 1975, p. 13). The
training methods he taught evolved into the martial art known in
Japan as Shorinji Kempo (Okazaki & Stricevic, 1997, p. 11). Shorinji
is the Japanese equivalent for Shaolin Temple (Funakoshi, 1981, p.
37).
Migration to Okinawa: The Creation of Okinawa-te
Okinawa is the main island of the Ryukyu Island
chain, a group of small islands scattered from southern Kyushu to
Taiwan, in the East China Sea (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p. 16). For
many centuries, Okinawa engaged in trade with the people of the
Fukien Province in southern China (Funakoshi, 1981, p. 31). As a
direct result of trade relationships, Shorinji Kempo reached Okinawa
before the onset of the fifteenth century (Okazaki & Stricevic,
1997, p. 11). The Okinawans blended Shorinji Kempo with their native
fighting techniques to produce Okinawa-te, which literally means
Okinawan hands (Nakayama, 1975, p. 13). Okinawa-te is the forerunner
of modern day Shotokan Karate (Melton, 1996, p. 1).
Migration to Japan: The Creation of Japanese
Karate-do
Gichin Funakoshi
The man most responsible for the modern
systemization of karate is Gichin Funakoshi. At age eleven,
Funakoshi began training under the two top masters of Okinawa-te at
that time, Yasutsune Azato and Yasutsune Itosu (Brown & Nishiyama,
1973, p. 17). Itosu and Azato began the evolution of Okinawa-te into
Japanese Karate-do (J. Melton, personal interview, October 27,
1998). The completion of the evolution resulted from the dedicated
work of Funakoshi. Before Funakoshi, primitive forms of karate were
enshrouded in mysticism, taught largely within the confines of
monasteries or by secret cults (Mikami, 1998). The use of the term
karate to describe the martial art of Okinawan origin required time
for acceptance. Funakoshi, in his autobiography, remarks that in
Okinawa the word karate was used, although more often Okinawans used
the term Okinawa-te or merely te (1981, p. 33). Despite the
terminology used at the time, Funakoshi preferred to call the art
Karate-do. Do is the Japanese word for way. Accordingly, Karate-do
literally means the empty-hand way. To Funakoshi, karate was a way
of life, not merely a form of self-defense. He believed that true
Karate-do encompassed the thoughts and actions of daily life.
Karate-do trains the mind and body in a spirit of humility and in
critical times allows an individual to devote all energy to the
cause of justice (1973, p. 3).
Introduction to Japan
The transformation of Okinawa-te into Japanese
Karate-do began in the twentieth century. In 1902, Funakoshi and his
students gave the first formal public demonstration of karate for
Shintaro Ogawa, the commissioner of schools for Japan's Kagoshima
Prefecture (Melton, 1996, p.2). Funakoshi recalls that Ogawa seemed
greatly impressed with the demonstration and that upon his return to
Japan, Ogawa submitted a detailed report to the Ministry of
Education, greatly extolling the virtues of karate (1981, p. 42). In
the early spring of 1922, Funakoshi traveled to Tokyo at the request
of the Ministry of Education to conduct a demonstration at the first
National Athletic Exhibition (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p. 17). The
martial arts community, particularly Jigoro Kano (founder of Judo),
and the educational community were so impressed that Funakoshi was
convinced to stay in Japan and teach karate. Funakoshi's high
education, ability to speak Japanese, and devotion to the concept
that karate should be promoted as a method of self-discipline,
health, and character development led to Japan's acceptance of
karate (Melton, 1996, p. 2).
Japanese Karate-do Becomes Shotokan Karate
The Renaming of Karate
Having decided to spread Karate-do throughout
Japan, Funakoshi endeavored to do so with great determination and
enthusiasm (Egami, 1976, p. 10). After his initial arrival in 1922,
Funakoshi developed a large number of students devoted to learning
the martial art he brought from Okinawa. Believing that karate was
now a Japanese martial art, Funakoshi urged the adoption of the
Japanese characters for empty hand to replace the Chinese characters
for Chinese hands (Okazaki & Stricevic, 1997, p. 12). In his
autobiography, Funakoshi explains the separate meanings for the two
representations of the word karate. The Chinese character pronounced
kara refers to the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) and may be translated
Chinese. The Japanese character pronounced kara means empty and is
more descriptive of the art. The Japanese character symbolizes the
obvious fact that karate makes use of no weapons, only bare feet and
empty hands. According to Funakoshi, students of Karate-do aim not
only toward perfecting their chosen art but also toward emptying
heart and mind of all earthly desire and vanity. Te, regardless of
language, simply means hand(s) (1981, pp. 33-35).
The Opening of the Shotokan
By 1936, the karate movement started by Funakoshi
was gaining strength. Funakoshi established and taught at more than
30 clubs on college campuses and at commercial businesses.
Funakoshi's students opened the first freestanding karate training
hall (dojo) in 1936 (Melton, 1996, p.3). Funakoshi vividly recalls
the opening. "In the spring of 1936, I entered for the first time
the new dojo and saw over the door a signboard bearing the dojo's
new name: Shoto-kan." Hence, the official beginning of Shotokan
Karate (1981, pp. 83-85). Funakoshi regretted the naming of the dojo
for one reason: as time passed, Japanese society began to refer to
him and his students as the Shotokan school. Classification greatly
disturbed Funakoshi because the idea of viewing the karate he taught
as a separate school went against the true goal of Karate-do.
Karate-do should be one art, not many separate styles, so that it
may progress with humankind (Funakoshi, 1981, pp. 38-39). Regardless
of Funakoshi's strong beliefs, today Shotokan Karate is the style of
karate recognized across the world as the martial art he introduced
to Japan in 1922.
Introduction to the United States
Shotokan's introduction to the United States began
shortly after the end of World War II. In 1948, an American Air
Force officer asked Funakoshi to make a three-month tour of mainland
bases to demonstrate Shotokan Karate to American Air Force pilots.
Funakoshi chose Isao Obata, Toshio Kamata, and Masatoshi Nakayama to
demonstrate the principles of Shotokan Karate (Funakoshi, 1981, p.
126). Shotokan proved exceedingly interesting to the American pilots
and as a result of the demonstrations, Shotokan Karate entered
American society. The United States wanted to know why and how
Shotokan worked (Melton, 1996, p.3). The Americans' desire to
understand Shotokan led Funakoshi to send various Japanese
instructors to the United States during the 1950's and 1960's (Begarnie,
1987, p. 4). Tsutomu Ohshima came to the United States first, in
1957 (J. Melton, personal interview, October 27, 1998). In 1955, the
establishment of the Japan Karate Association (JKA) established
Shotokan Karate as a worldwide martial art. Funakoshi served as the
chief instructor (Nakayama, 1975, p. 13). Since he was 81 years old,
Masatoshi Nakayama handled the actual teaching and Hidetaka
Nishiyama headed the instruction committee.
By the early 1970's, Teruyuki Okazaki, Takayuki
Mikami, Yutaka Yaguchi, and Hidetaka Nishiyama served as chief
instructors of different organizations. Internal political conflicts
split the JKA into two separate organizations: the International
Shotokan Karate Federation (ISKF), headed by Okazaki, and the
American Amateur Karate Federation (AAKF), headed by Nishiyama
(Melton, 1996, pp. 3-4). Today, the ISKF and AAKF are separate
organizations but constitute the JKA. The ISKF is the larger of the
two organizations. The ISKF comprises over 28 Pan-American countries
and has over 50,000 members (Orlando, 1998).
Shotokan Training
Basic Description
In Funakoshi's 20 Principles of Training (Niju
Kun), he states that training always begins and ends with a bow
(Orlando, 1998). All training sessions, in traditional setting, have
an opening and a closing ceremony. The opening ceremony involves
lining up and then assuming a kneeling position with the feet tucked
under the body (seiza). The instructor or highest-ranking student
will then instruct the students to close their eyes and clear all
thoughts that do not pertain to training. The purpose of seiza is to
sit upright in a clean atmosphere and meditate (mokuso) in silence
to achieve a clear conscience (Egami, 1976, p. 36). The opening
ceremony prepares a student for training by relaxing the mind and
body. In the closing ceremony, seiza and mokuso serve the opposite
purpose; the mind releases all thoughts about the recent training in
order to concentrate on other activities. Regardless of beginning or
ending ceremony, the process of lining up, kneeling, and meditating
serves as a boundary between in-class performance and out-of-class
activity (J. Melton, personal interview, October 27, 1998).
Funakoshi summarizes the philosophy behind
Shotokan training in his Training Hall Code of Ethics (Dojo Kun):
"seek perfection of character, be faithful, endeavor, respect
others, refrain from violent behavior" (Orlando, 1998). Training
involves body and spirit and most importantly, one should treat his
opponent courteously and with the proper etiquette. The first
purpose in pursuing Shotokan is to develop a spirit of humility
(Nakayama, 1978a, p. 11). Shotokan Karate does not train individuals
to solve problems through fighting (Oyama, 1979, p. 119). On the
contrary, the highest achievement in Shotokan is to learn to resolve
conflicts without violence.
Shotokan training involves dedication. Funakoshi
warned his students not to expect results in a short time. A student
must train systematically without impatience, advancing one step at
a time (1973, p. 37). Students wishing to improve their skills must
sacrifice time and energy to develop coordination and control of the
body. Learning to control and to coordinate the body requires time.
Without proper balance and muscle control, it is difficult to
perform techniques correctly (Goldstein & Sternberg, 1982, p. 17).
Traditional training requires students to wear
acceptable clothing. The correct clothing for Shotokan training
consists of a uniform made from heavy cotton, known in Japanese as a
gi. The gi has a top and a bottom that fasten together with cotton
strands. The student also wears a belt that signifies his or her
rank (Begarnie, 1987, p. 6). Using different colored belts to
signify rank is a standardized method of assessing the skill level
of Shotokan students (Funakoshi, 1997, p. 20). Funakoshi adopted the
belt system for Shotokan from the rank system used by judo founder
Jigoro Kano (J. Melton, personal interview, October 27, 1998).
Kihon
Kihon is the practice of basic techniques,
generally in single form (Begarnie, 1987, p. 4). A student
practicing kihon is training in the basic techniques that all
Shotokan students must develop. Takayuki Mikami, chief instructor of
the Southern Region of the ISKF, expresses that Shotokan Karate is
different from many other martial arts. Instead of thrusting the
beginner immediately into actual sparring and contact situations,
Shotokan begins by teaching basic principles and movements. All
other techniques build upon the solid foundation established in
initial training (1998). Kihon consists of punching (tsuki),
striking (uchi), kicking (keri), and blocking (uke) techniques
(Nakayama, 1975, p. 15). Generally, basic techniques selected for
practice represent the movements and techniques found in Shotokan's
formal exercises (kata) (Egami, 1976, p. 41). Practice focuses on
three different areas of the body: the upper body (jodan), the
mid-section (chudan), and the lower body (gedan). Specifically,
jodan consists of the head, face, and neck, chudan refers to the
chest, abdomen and back, and gedan designates any area at or below
the waist (Begarnie, 1987, p.10).
A dedicated student will never cease to pursue the
study of basic techniques (Funakoshi, 1988, p. 50). In Shotokan,
progress builds from the basic techniques. If a student does not
develop basic techniques sufficiently, kata and kumite performance
will suffer. Consequently, training requires practicing each
technique consistently (Begarnie, 1987, p. 1). Only then will the
student properly execute techniques during kata and kumite. The late
instructor of the JKA, Masatoshi Nakayama, urged students to focus
on correct physical and physiological principles when learning
techniques. Effective technique lies in correct understanding of the
principles of each technique. In order to develop effective power,
speed, and timing, a Shotokan student must practice kihon routinely
(Nakayama, 1975, pp.15-17). James Melton, fourth-degree black belt
and instructor of the Baylor Karate Club, teaches his students
according to the principles established by Funakoshi and Nakayama,
"pay attention to the consistent, fundamental details of the basic
techniques. . . . Once those fundamental details are learned, work
on applying them everywhere--kihon, kata, kumite, self-defense, and
exercise for health" (personal interview, October 27, 1998). The
student who understands the fundamental principles of basic
techniques and trains according to these principles will be able to
excel in more complex karate training.
Kata
In Shotokan Karate, as well as other styles of
karate, practicing kata is the method of formal training (Brown &
Nishiyama, 1973, p. 150). A kata is a formal exercise consisting of
a logical sequence of blocking, punching, striking and kicking
techniques (Nakayama, 1979b, p. 12). Through several centuries of
practice and experimentation, well-known karate instructors have
developed the various kata into their present state (Oyama, 1979, p.
96). The kata in Shotokan Karate belong to two broad categories. In
one group are the kata appropriate for physical development, the
strengthening of bone and muscle. In the other group are kata
suitable for the development of fast reflexes and the ability to
move quickly (Nakayama, 1979b, p. 12). Students must study kata from
both categories to advance in rank. However, in competition students
have a degree of freedom in deciding which kata to perform.
Generally, students with larger, heavier frames choose kata from the
first group, while students with smaller, lighter frames tend to
select kata from the second group. As exercise, kata training is one
of the best ways to improve balance, coordination and muscle control
(Goldstein & Sternberg, 1982, p. 33). Kata provide a well-balanced
physical workout because they do not develop any one set of muscles
at the expense of the others (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p. 153).
Nakayama cautions students not to view kata
training as merely a form of physical exercise (1979b, p. 12). Many
students fail to realize the significance of kata training. Having
practiced a specific kata for several months, a student may become
impatient and want to advance to more complex and artistic kata. To
gain anything from Shotokan, a student must fully understand the
importance of kata. Within the movements of kata are the
applications of all techniques taught in Shotokan. More important
than performing a kata correctly is the ability to understand the
real world application of its techniques. From each kata, a student
will learn new methods of attack and defense (Goldstein & Sternberg,
1982, p. 33). Kata teach students how to execute various techniques
while moving backwards, forwards, and sideways at different speeds,
without losing balance or concentration. Kata training is mental as
well as physical. In performing a kata, the student should exhibit
boldness and confidence, but also humility, gentleness and a sense
of decorum, thus integrating mind and body in a single discipline. A
student must imagine attacking and defending against opponents
coming from all directions (Nakayama, 1979b, pp. 12-13). A kata
lacking mental concentration is merely physical exercise; purpose of
application and understanding is lost.
Kumite
Kumite is a method of training in which a student
engages in practical application of the offensive and defensive
techniques learned in kata (Nakayama, 1978b, p. 14). In the United
States, instructors and students often refer to kumite as sparring.
Regardless of terminology, many students make the mistake of
thinking that kumite is the same as fighting. Kumite and fighting
are two different events. Melton relates the importance of
recognizing the difference between kumite and fighting. "Sparring is
a game or a sport. It has rules which have two purposes: protect the
contestants and help judges determine a winner. . . . A fight is not
a game. The outcome can be injury or death" (personal interview,
October 27, 1998). Students training in kumite must obey a set of
rules. Typically, legal areas of attack include the face, head,
neck, chest, abdomen, and back. Forbidden areas include the groin
and the joints (Begarnie, 1987, p. 29). Each participant must
exhibit controlled techniques and respect for his or her opponent
(T. Mikami, personal interview, October 23, 1998). The aim in kumite
is not to see who is strongest, but to see whose techniques are the
most precise (Begarnie, 1987, p. 29). Fighting, on the contrary,
rarely contains precision or respect; fighting has no rules. There
are three types of kumite: basic sparring (kumite), semi-free
sparring (jiyu ippon kumite) and free sparring (jiyu kumite)
(Nakayama, 1978b, p. 14). The different types of kumite serve to
distinguish different levels of cooperation and competition between
participants (J. Melton, personal interview, October 27, 1998).
Basic Kumite
The purpose of basic kumite is to train beginners
in the principles of applying techniques in a highly controlled
setting (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p. 169). Basic kumite is the most
elementary form of kumite. To begin, the two opponents take a fixed
distance from each other and agree on the target area (Nakayama,
1978b, p. 14). The opponents then alternate in their roles as
attacker and defender. Opponents can perform basic kumite in a five
step (gohon) or a three step (sambon) sequence (Melton, 1996, p.19).
In gohon kumite, one student attacks four times, the other student
defending each attack with a block. On the fifth attack, the
defending student blocks and then delivers a counter attack. Sambon
kumite proceeds in the same manner except there are only three
attack/block sequences and one counter attack (Nakayama, 1978b, p.
14). Both gohon and sambon emphasize cultivation of basic technique,
accuracy, and gauging of distance (Melton, 1996, p. 19).
An extension of basic kumite is one step sparring
(ippon kumite). Ippon kumite serves as a link between basic kumite
and the forms of jiyu kumite. Ippon kumite, like basic sparring,
consists of two opponents agreeing upon the intended target and
assuming the roles of attacker and defender. Ippon kumite is more
difficult because both attacker and defender only have one chance to
execute the proper technique (Melton, 1996, p. 20). In ippon kumite,
the attacker earnestly tries to find an opening in his opponent's
defense. Similarly, the defender tries to prevent revealing an
opening (Egami, 1976, p. 113).
Jiyu Ippon Kumite
In jiyu ippon kumite, two students stand freely at
an optional distance from one another. Announcing the target area,
the attacker executes decisively. The attacker freely chooses the
offensive technique, without notifying the defender in advance
(Nakayama, 1979a, p. 14). The defender may use body shifting,
blocking, and counter attacks at any time after the initial attack
(Melton, 1996, p. 20). Jiyu ippon kumite is an extremely important
method for forging techniques because it involves methods of attack
and defense in all directions, breathing, and shifting the body's
center of gravity (Nakayama, 1979a, p. 15).
Jiyu Kumite
Jiyu kumite engages two students in sparring
without any pre-arrangement of target area or technique (Nakayama,
1978b, p. 14). However, jiyu kumite is still not fighting. Jiyu
kumite, despite the freedom it grants participants, is still
training. Training, in any form, is never actual fighting because it
occurs in a controlled environment. A set of rules, although
minimal, still governs jiyu kumite (Melton, 1996, p. 21). The rules
for jiyu kumite prohibit specific techniques and targets, but that
is the extent of limitation among participants (Nakayama, 1978b, p.
14). Freedom to choose techniques does not mean that the two
participants should resort to the most complex attacks and defenses.
Success in jiyu kumite involves precise execution of basic
techniques rather than fancy kicks and grappling (Begarnie, 1987, p.
29). A skilled karate student does not need spinning aerial kicks or
complicated joint locks to be proficient in jiyu kumite.
Nakayama states that successful performance in
jiyu kumite must involve the following vital components: posture (kamae),
stance (tachi), fixing the eyes (me no tsukekata), distance (maai),
and psychological moment of technique execution (waza o hodokoso
koki). To succeed in jiyu kumite the student must learn to notice
and to take advantage of an opponent's vulnerable points (Orlando,
1998). Without significant training in basic techniques and kata,
the karate student will lack the qualities needed for successful
performance in jiyu kumite (Nakayama, 1979a, pp. 16-17). Besides
giving the student practice in hand techniques, foot techniques, and
body shifting, jiyu kumite teaches proper distance, timing, and
response. A student practicing jiyu kumite learns to apply strategy
while developing courage and composure of mind (Brown & Nishiyama,
1973, p. 169).
Who Can Train?
Age and Gender
Funakoshi argued that age is of no concern in
Shotokan Karate (1997, p. 22). His statement holds much truth.
Shotokan Karate does not consider age or gender as factors in
deciding who is capable of training. Anyone, young or old, strong or
weak, male or female, may engage in Shotokan (Funakoshi, 1981, p.
112). During the 1950's and 1960's, college students primarily
trained in Shotokan, with emphasis on competition and scientific
justification of techniques (J. Melton, personal interview, October
27, 1998). Today, Shotokan students range from elementary school
children to retired men and women. As long as desire exists there is
no limitation to when training can begin (Funakoshi, 1997, p. 24).
Physical Ability
Unlike many athletic activities, anyone may
practice Shotokan because each individual can adjust the exercise to
his or her physical ability (Funakoshi, 1973, p. 12). Unfortunately,
training does have some restrictions regarding physical ability that
will always exist. Shotokan Karate is not tolerant of people with
severe physical disabilities, because of its emphasis on perfecting
physical techniques. The average person with no disabilities will
find training very demanding (J. Melton, personal interview, October
27, 1998). An important principle regarding physical ability is that
everyone has particular talents as well as specific weaknesses.
Shotokan Karate teaches students to heighten their natural
abilities, while at the same time concentrating on correcting
weaknesses (Funakoshi, 1973, p. 39).
Attitude
In any martial art, there are always students who
only desire to use the art for fighting (Funakoshi, 1981, p. 104).
Students with such attitudes rarely train consistently for any
length of time. This type of student only concentrates on how the
art will provide a means of inflicting injury on individuals.
Shotokan Karate does not encourage nor tolerate students with
malicious attitudes. Shotokan appeals to detail-oriented,
intelligent people who enjoy physical and mental challenges in a
disciplined environment. Shotokan training provides endless
opportunities for a stimulated person to analyze technique and
application (J. Melton, personal interview, October 27, 1998).
Benefits of Training
Physical Benefits
Proper training involves exerting all energy
toward proper execution of each technique. Funakoshi believed that
dedicated students must train until they fall from exhaustion. Then
they must soon continue, using the same strict regimen (1981, p.
106). Under such strict training conditions, a student could
maximize physical potential. Today students rarely train to the
point of total exhaustion. However, this does not mean that they
will not benefit physically from training. In conjunction with
Funakoshi's advise, it is more appropriate that students push their
own physical limitations while training. A student must always
strive to execute one more technique than seems possible. Training
in this manner will lead to long-term physical improvement of the
body. Specifically, consistent training in Shotokan Karate will
condition the cardiovascular, respiratory, and musculoskeletal
systems of the human body.
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Improvement
Through conducting six years of medical research
at Long Island University, Teruyuki Okazaki and Dr. Milorad
Stricevic, M.D., confirmed the positive effects Shotokan training
has on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. In the
experiments conducted, Okazaki and Stricevic collected data related
to the performance of the Bassai Dai and Hangetsu kata. One hundred
karate students, ranging from 18 to 45 years in age, with an average
of four years of karate experience, participated in a study to
determine the effects of the selected kata on heart and respiratory
function. Okazaki and Stricevic recorded the heart rate of
participants at rest, during pre-starting, and upon the conclusion
of the each kata. Analysis of the data led Okazaki and Stricevic to
conclude that the kata examined constituted a stress level (heart
rate) high enough for positive cardiovascular exercise.
Additionally, the resultant data exhibited increases in vital lung
capacity of participants (1997, pp. 22-26). Vital lung capacity is
the maximum volume of air inhaled and exhaled during forced
breathing. Vital capacity depends on the resilience of the lungs
(Campbell, 1993, p. 842). After six to eight months of training,
increases in vital lung capacity among participants ranged between
400 ml and 600 ml (Okazaki & Stricevic, 1997, p. 26).
Thus, scientific data demonstrates that proper
training provides improvement of the cardiovascular and respiratory
system. Optimal heart rate during training leads to a larger, more
powerful heart that pumps more blood with each beat, resulting in
more efficient blood circulation (Okazaki & Stricevic,1997, p. 23).
A heart that pumps a greater volume of blood per beat beats fewer
times to achieve the same blood flow. Increased lung capacity
provides greater flow of oxygen to the brain and muscles.
Musculoskeletal Improvement
A student who trains seriously for at least a year
will notice considerable changes in physique (Funakoshi, 1997, p.
21). Noticeable improvement of the musculoskeletal system includes
improved strength, speed, muscle control, and balance (Oyama, 1979,
p. 11). Shotokan requires the use of the entire musculoskeletal
system, moving in complex manner, in all possible directions.
Okazaki considers improvement of physical condition as one of the
most important benefits of training (1997, p. 12). Without proper
conditioning of the musculoskeletal system, a Shotokan student
cannot execute techniques effectively. When practiced correctly,
Shotokan promotes balanced development of the musculoskeletal system
by requiring students to learn left and right-sided techniques
equally (Funakoshi, 1973, p. 11).
Mental Benefits
Development of the Mind
In all martial arts, mental concentration and
development are essential to training (Funakoshi, 1997, p. 23).
Shotokan is no exception. In addition to conditioning the body,
Shotokan improves the mind. It increases one's alertness and
self-awareness (Oyama, 1979, p. 11). Shotokan aids in building
self-esteem and confidence (J. Melton, personal interview, October
27, 1998). Through training, students acquire true confidence, not
cockiness or brashness, but a confidence in their ability to respond
to the challenges of life (Oyama, 1979, p. 11). Funakoshi told his
students that the great virtues of karate are prudence and humility
(1981, p. 93). "In your training do not forget the spirit and
humility of a beginner" (Funakoshi, 1987, p. 7). At the same time,
he warned them not to fall victim to pride. "Pride is dangerous. It
is a violation of the spirit of Karate-do" (Funakoshi, 1981, p. 57).
It is wise that an individual training in any martial art remember
Funakoshi's advice. The humble student who is willing to listen to
the knowledge and advice of the instructor will attain proper
understanding of techniques. Students driven by pride will ignore
their instructor, allowing pride to create a false sense of ability
to use techniques effectively. Students driven by pride will
constantly ignore reality in a desperate attempt to convince
themselves that they are proficient in their art. In Shotokan, the
student who succumbs to pride will struggle to succeed.
Understanding Application of Techniques
In Karate-do, there is emphasis on simplicity,
tranquility, and sincerity of the mind (Melton, 1996, p.4). These
mental qualities must develop if a student hopes to understand the
application of techniques learned in training. The practical
application of techniques must be found as best suited for an
individual's body and personality. Understanding application
requires concentration and a healthy mind (Mikami, 1998). A student
must understand how each technique relates to his or her body and
personality. Understanding and acknowledging this relationship
allows a student to realistically view his or her ability to execute
a technique effectively. As an example, slow students should not
rely on fast, light techniques as a practical means of self-defense.
Instead, students of this type should focus on correct execution of
stronger techniques that are more suited for their individual
abilities. Through training, a student will learn to differentiate
between techniques that are suitable for his or her body and
personality and those that are not (Egami, 1976, p.19).
Understanding the application of techniques is
essential if a student is to gain anything from training. Funakoshi
describes the importance of understanding application in simple
terms, "you may train for a long, long time, but if you merely move
your hands and feet and jump up and down like a puppet, learning
karate is not very different from learning to dance. You will never
have reached the heart of the matter; you will have failed to grasp
the quintessence of Karate-do" (1981, p.105). Regardless of how
impressively a student performs a kata or a technique, training is
futile when understanding of application is absent. A student who
cannot apply techniques realistically for purposes of self-defense
has learned little from training. Understanding application requires
mental awareness and curiosity, both of which develop through proper
training. Unfortunately, many students training in martial arts
ignore application. Instead of focusing on how and why a technique
works, these students concentrate on superfluous, short-term goals
such as impressive high kicks and fast movement. Consequently,
understanding of how to apply fundamental techniques never develops.
Realization of Weaknesses
Nakayama believed that to become a victor, one
must first overcome his own self (1978a, p. 11). Shotokan teaches
students to realize, not ignore, their weaknesses. Self-study and
understanding are prerequisites for effectiveness against any
opponent. If students do not have a clear understanding of their
strengths and weaknesses, then the appraisal of another's strengths
and weaknesses is meaningless. Effort in karate must be toward
examining the self (Mikami, 1998). Funakoshi often told his students
that they must become, not strong, but weak (1981, p. 114). His
meaning to this seemingly paradoxical statement lies in realization
of personal weaknesses. Students must refine technique through
training, but must never forget that only through training will they
recognize their weaknesses. It is the recognition of weaknesses that
allows a student to develop and progress in Shotokan Karate.
Generation of Power
Techniques Require the Entire Body
Shotokan Karate is known for its explosive power
(Melton, 1996). Generation of power results from strong focus (kime)
made possible by full hip motions and total physical commitment to
each technique (Mikami, 1998). The principle behind all techniques
is the maximum concentration of the strength of the entire body for
purposes of creating power (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p. 29). Using
muscles throughout the entire body, rather than one or two muscle
groups, enables correctly executed techniques to generate
considerable power.
Powerful techniques result from the momentum
generated by body muscles acting in the correct sequence, tensing at
the instant of impact. The faster muscles can respond, the more
power the resultant technique will generate. Balance of forces
during any particular action requires proper development of all
muscles (Okazaki & Stricevic, 1997, p. 16). To execute techniques
correctly, the muscles must contract and expand at the correct
times. Otherwise, the body will be tense and will not move fluidly
(T. Mikami, personal interview, October 23, 1998). In order to
rapidly change between techniques, muscles must relax at the proper
time. After impact, the muscles used for the delivered technique
should expand. Another factor contributing to the power generated by
a technique is that the action force transmits through the body of
the person performing the technique. The strong force generated
slowly by large muscle groups combines with the relatively weak
force generated quickly in the extremities. The combining of forces
results in powerful hand and foot techniques (Okazaki & Stricevic,
1997, p. 17).
Linear Motion
Linear motion is one of three ways of generating
power in Shotokan Karate. Linear motion refers to thrusting the hips
toward the target, while at the same time sending a technique in the
same direction, coordinating the two so they arrive at the target
together (Melton, 1996, p. 9). To apply linear motion correctly, the
foot of the pivot leg must remain in full contact with the floor (T.
Mikami, personal interview, October 23, 1998). The force required
for forward movement originates in the action of the pivot leg.
Stronger, quicker motion of the pivot leg generates more powerful
and faster forward hip movement. The faster the hips advance
forward, the greater the power of the resulting technique (Melton,
1996, p. 9).
Linear motion alone limits the student's range
from which techniques will be effective. In applying linear motion
to generate power, the utilization of body shifting (tai sabaki)
will heighten technique effectiveness. Linear motion, combined with
body shifting, allows a student to close distance through forward
movement of the body (Okazaki & Stricevic, 1997, p. 87). Presented
with a situation in which the opponent is out of range, a student
can still attack using linear motion. The student initiates the
desired technique using tai sabaki to adjust the distance to the
opponent. Linear motion, coupled with shifting and properly timed
technique, results in a powerful impact force, since it coordinates
the application of strength with the power of the entire body
(Melton, 1998).
Rotation
Rotation of the hips is another method used to
generate power (Melton, 1996, p. 11). Utilization of the hips is
essential to the effective application of power and force in
techniques (Nakayama, 1975, p. 57). Rotation is a simple concept.
The rotation of the hips, forward or backward, provides additional
force to a given technique (T. Mikami, personal interview, October
23, 1998). Achieving proper rotation, however, requires lengthy
training. Anchoring one side of the body and using it as a pivot
creates rotation. The rear leg and hips drive the other side of the
body forward. The faster the rotation, the greater the force of the
resulting technique (Melton, 1998). Nakayama explains that the
student should remember the following key points when executing
rotation: rotate the hips in one continuous movement, turn the
shoulders at the same time as the hips, do not lean forward,
maintain a perpendicular stature, rotate the hips along the same
horizontal plane during the entire rotation, and make sure the hips
are fully rotated in the proper direction (1975, p. 59). Force
generated through rotation enhances the effectiveness of the arms
and legs. The force transfers to the torso and then either to the
arm or leg, depending on the technique. As the force generated by
the hips travels through the body, it increases as a result of other
muscle groups acting in the execution of the technique. The
transferred force, greater in magnitude, increases the power of the
executed technique. Thus, a small amount of hip rotation results in
the generation of larger force and power at the extremities
(Nakayama, 1975, p. 58).
Vibration
Vibration is similar to rotation and shifting in
that the legs and hips provide the original source of power for the
technique (Melton, 1998). Vibration differs in the action of the
hips, which generate the initial movement. The hips create a small,
sharp motion in the direction of the technique, then a counter
motion immediately in the opposite direction. Moving forward serves
to power the technique to the target. The quick movement in the
opposite direction allows a student to maintain balance without
shifting the center of gravity in the direction of the technique
(Melton, 1996, p. 12). The technique's force originates in the hip
and increases as it flows through the required muscles over a very
brief time interval (Okazaki & Stricevic, 1997, p. 17). In theory,
the size of the motion or the distance each body part moves does not
limit the amount of force created. The amount of force generated
depends on how fast the hand or foot is moving at impact and the
degree of connection between the technique and the body's mass
(Melton, 1996, p. 12). Accelerating the hips rapidly forward and
then backward is vital for vibration to be effective (Nakayama,
1975, p. 62). Vibration is difficult because the time to execute the
technique is very brief. In order to generate substantial force
using vibration, acceleration must be as fast as possible. Without
rapid acceleration, vibration cannot generate enough force to make a
technique effective. To accelerate quickly when using vibration, a
student must relax the required muscles before initiating the
technique. Tensing the arms, legs, or abdomen before execution of
technique will result in slow acceleration (T. Mikami, personal
interview, October 23, 1998). Slow acceleration results in weak,
ineffective techniques.
Scientific Basis for Techniques
The common factor underlying all techniques in
Shotokan Karate is the concrete application of the laws of physics,
anatomy, and kinesiology in such a way that maximizes force (Brown &
Nishiyama, 1973, p. 29). Shotokan is more organized and more
structured than other martial arts. It has evolved with a clear,
consistent vision of how techniques work (J. Melton, personal
interview, October 27, 1998). The remarkable strength manifested in
many individual karate techniques, both offensive and defensive, is
not a result of mystical powers or secret training methods. On the
contrary, the power of Shotokan techniques is the inevitable result
of effective application of standard scientific principles to body
mechanics, combined with constant practice (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973,
p. 18). Mikami emphasizes that the student who concentrates on
proper body movements will develop techniques that are more
effective and will understand the reasons for effectiveness
(personal interview, October 23, 1998).
Maximum power results from the correct expansion
and contraction of the body's muscles (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p.
19). Specifically, muscular expansion and contraction influence the
components that constitute the force delivered by a technique.
Mathematically, force equals the product of mass and acceleration
(Rothstein, et al., 1997, p. 624). The direct relationship between
force and acceleration means that in karate muscular strength is not
the only factor in delivering a powerful technique. Force
accumulates during the execution of a technique because of
acceleration. Therefore, the faster the acceleration the more force
the technique will generate (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p. 19).
Similarly, the direct relationship between force and power implies
that the greater the action force of a technique, the greater the
final power created by the technique.
Concentration of strength is necessary to perform
any technique effectively. Strength dispersed over a long time
interval will accomplish nothing. However, a small amount of
strength, properly concentrated in a short time interval, can
generate a large amount of power (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p. 19).
Mathematically, power has an inverse relationship to time
(Rothstein, et al., 1997, p. 639). All other factors being equal,
the shorter the time required to build maximum striking force, the
more powerful the technique. The element of concentration, in terms
of time, is very important in Shotokan. Concentration of strength,
at the correct instant, enables the student to develop effective
techniques based on the expansion and the contraction of required
muscle groups (Brown & Nishiyama, 1973, p. 19).
Finding a Legitimate Instructor
Fact, Not Fiction
The most crucial mistake a person can make when
deciding to study a martial art is to choose an incompetent
instructor. Shotokan Karate, like all martial arts, has well-trained
instructors as well as poor instructors. Nakayama warns individuals
to choose an instructor very carefully. True karate involves
constant dedication to training and is never a short course method
for learning self-defense (1974, p.7). Today, more than ever, there
are men and women who claim to be valid instructors who are merely
corrupting the art they claim to understand. This type of instructor
uses false information to attract potential students. Often,
incompetent instructors will claim that their art is the best or
that their art offers a complete form of self-defense. Claims such
as these are naïve and foolish. Any style of martial art can only be
judged on its product, the individuals who train in the art. All
individuals are unique in their skills and abilities. Thus, to
attempt to judge the effectiveness of a martial art, as a whole,
would require the judgement of all practitioners of the art.
Clearly, attempting such a process is illogical. As for any martial
art being a complete form of self-defense, this claim is not
supported by fact. If there were a martial art that offered a
complete form of self-defense, then there would only be one martial
art. The fact that there are numerous forms of martial arts
illustrates that humankind has not developed a form of self-defense
that will work in all situations. A student should not trust the
words of instructors who makes inaccurate statements about their
art. Potential students must realize that Shotokan Karate requires
patience and regular training to develop expert skill (Nakayama,
1974, p. 7). Avoid any instructor that does not believe in these two
aspects of the art.
Investigate
Foremost, a valid instructor employs a systematic
and properly scheduled training system (Nakayama 1975, p.15).
Training should conform to correct principles of physics and
physiology. If an instructor believes that improvement requires
consistent exposure to pain, stop training immediately. Melton
informs individuals to evaluate a possible instructor in the same
manner one would evaluate any person hired for teaching purposes.
Determine the validity of what the instructor claims (personal
interview, October 27, 1998). Never assume instructors are
legitimate simply because of what they say or how they look. When
visiting a dojo, make observations. Ask various questions. Consider
the overall appearance of the dojo. Is it clean and organized? Is
the instructor at least a third or fourth-degree black belt? Check
to see if the instructor offers a short beginner course to let
individuals try out the training program. If possible, watch a
beginner class and pay attention to warm-ups, discipline, and to the
attitude of the instructor (Begarnie, 1987, p. 6). Many factors
contribute to successfully choosing a valid instructor. Failure to
investigate the mentioned areas may result in disappointment as well
as unnecessary injury.
Conclusion
In this paper, I have presented a broad, detailed
selection of information on Shotokan Karate. For the inexperienced
reader, who has never practiced a traditional martial art, I hope
this paper provides an understanding of the numerous aspects that
constitute Shotokan Karate. Perhaps an interest in the art will
develop as well. For the reader who is already a Shotokan
practitioner, I hope this paper will improve training and enhance
existing knowledge of the art.
Shotokan Karate is a traditional martial art that
teaches effective methods of self-defense. However, the ability to
defend against attack is only one of various equally important goals
of Shotokan. Shotokan stresses the development of body and mind.
Physically, Shotokan improves muscle strength, flexibility of the
body, and various systems of the body. Proper training leads to
better health. Mentally, Shotokan instructs students in the value of
character. It teaches respect, humility, honor, dedication,
compassion, and patience. Shotokan teaches an individual to approach
life logically and realistically, without bias. It does not cloud
the mind with fantasy and exaggeration. A student who trains
persistently in Shotokan gains greater understanding of life. In
conclusion, Shotokan Karate is as Gichin Funakoshi originally
described the art. It is not a style; it is not simply a means of
defeating opponents. It is a do. A way to approach individuals,
events, and life.
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